Literature Archive
Explore this multi-disciplinary archive including peer-reviewed research, books, news articles, conference proceedings and more!
Recent Publications (2024-2025)
- Smith Elliot, et al (2025) Forecasting sea otter recolonization: insights from isotopic analysis of modern and zooarchaeological populations. Proceedings Royal Society B 292: 20241682. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.1682
- Nicholson Teri E. et al (2024) Sea otter recovery buffers century-scale declines in California kelp forests. PLOS Clim 3(1): e0000290. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000290
- Jeppesen, Rikke et al (2024) Recovering population of the southern sea otter suppresses a global marine invader. Biological Invasions 27(33), https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-024-03467-3
- National Public Radio report on Jeppeson, et al. https://www.npr.org/2025/01/13/nx-s1-5246188/invasive-crabs-threatened-west-coast-ecosystems-for-decades-one-solution-otters
- Law, Chris J. et al (2024) Tool use increases mechanical foraging success and tooth health in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj6608
- Oregon Kelp Alliance (2024) Kelp Status Report
- Steffen Kiel, et al (2024) Early Oligocene kelp holdfasts and stepwise evolution of the kelp ecosystem in the North Pacific, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2317054121
Sea Otter Ecology
- NPR. (2025, January 13). Invasive crabs threatened West Coast ecosystems for decades. One solution? Otters. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2025/01/13/nx-s1-5246188/invasive-crabs-threatened-west-coast-ecosystems-for-decades-one-solution-otters
- Jeppesen, Rikke et al (2024) Recovering population of the southern sea otter suppresses a global marine invader. Biological Invasions 27(33), https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-024-03467-3
- Joshua Rapp Learn (2021) Wild Cam: Orcas to blame for Aleutian sea otter collapse. The Wildlife Society
- Foster, Erin, et al (2021) Physical disturbance by recovering sea otter populations increases eelgrass genetic diversity. Science Vol 374, Issue 6565 pp. 333-336 DOI: 10.1126/science.abf2343
- Smith, J. G., Tomoleoni, J., Staedler, M., Lyon, S., Fujii, J., & Tinker, M. T. (2021). Behavioral responses across a mosaic of ecosystem states restructure a sea otter–urchin trophic cascade. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(11).
- Erlandson, J. M., Rick, T. C., Estes, J. A., Graham, M. H., Braje, T. J., & Vellanoweth, R. L. (2005). Sea otters, shellfish, and humans: 10,000 years of ecological interaction on San Miguel Island, California. In Proceedings of the sixth California Islands symposium (pp. 58-69). Arcata, California: Institute for Wildlife Studies.
- Estes, J. A., Riedman, M. L., Staedler, M. M., Tinker, M. T., & Lyon, B. E. (2003). Individual variation in prey selection by sea otters: patterns, causes and implications. Journal of Animal Ecology, 72(1), 144-155.
- Estes, J. A., Tinker, M. T., Williams, T. M., & Doak, D. F. (1998). Killer whale predation on sea otters linking oceanic and nearshore ecosystems. science, 282(5388), 473-476.
- Estes, J. A., & Duggins, D. O. (1995). Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm. Ecological Monographs, 65(1), 75-100.
- Estes, J. A., & Palmisano, J. F. (1974). Sea otters: their role in structuring nearshore communities. Science, 185(4156), 1058-1060.
- Fujii, J. A., Ralls, K., & Tinker, M. T. (2015). Ecological drivers of variation in tool-use frequency across sea otter populations. Behavioral Ecology, 26(2), 519-526.
- Johnson, C. K., Tinker, M. T., Estes, J. A., Conrad, P. A., Staedler, M., Miller, M. A., … & Mazet, J. A. (2009). Prey choice and habitat use drive sea otter pathogen exposure in a resource-limited coastal system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(7), 2242-2247.
- Monson, D. H., Estes, J. A., Bodkin, J. L., & Siniff, D. B. (2000). Life history plasticity and population regulation in sea otters. Oikos, 90(3), 457-468.
- Riedman, M. L., & Estes, J. A. (1988). A review of the history, distribution and foraging ecology of sea otters. In The community ecology of sea otters (pp. 4-21). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
- Simenstad, C. A., Estes, J. A., & Kenyon, K. W. (1978). Aleuts, sea otters, and alternate stable-state communities. Science, 200(4340), 403-411.
- Tinker, M. T., Bentall, G., & Estes, J. A. (2008). Food limitation leads to behavioral diversification and dietary specialization in sea otters. Proceedings of the national Academy of Sciences, 105(2), 560-565.
- Smith Elliot, et al (2025) Forecasting sea otter recolonization: insights from isotopic analysis of modern and zooarchaeological populations. Proceedings Royal Society B 292: 20241682. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.1682
Sea Otter Anatomy & Physiology
- Nicholson, T. E., Mayer, K. A., Staedler, M. M., Gagné, T. O., Murray, M. J., Young, M. A., … & Van Houtan, K. S. (2020). Robust age estimation of southern sea otters from multiple morphometrics. Ecology and Evolution, 10(16), 8592-8609.
- Chai, H., Lee, J. J. W., Constantino, P. J., Lucas, P. W., & Lawn, B. R. (2009). Remarkable resilience of teeth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(18), 7289-7293.
- Costa, D. P., & Kooyman, G. L. (1982). Oxygen consumption, thermoregulation, and the effect of fur oiling and washing on the sea otter, Enhydra lutris. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 60(11), 2761-2767.
- Morrison, P., Rosenmann, M., & Estes, J. A. (1974). Metabolism and thermoregulation in the sea otter. Physiological zoology, 47(4), 218-229.
The Kelp Forrest Ecosystem
- Oregon State University. (2024, February 5). Oregon State research uncovers key insight for restoration of globally important kelp forests. Oregon State University News. https://news.oregonstate.edu/news/oregon-state-research-uncovers-key-insight-restoration-globally-important-kelp-forests
- Roopnarine, Peter D, et al (2022) Impact of the extinct megaherbivore Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas) on kelp forest resilience Front. Ecol. Evol., 27 November 2022, Volume 10 – 2022 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2022.983558
- Eger, Aaron M. et al (2023) The value of ecosystem services in global marine kelp forests. Nature Communications 18 April 2023 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37385-0
- McPherson, M. L., et al (2021) Large-scale shift in the structure of a kelp forest ecosystem co-occurs with an epizootic and marine heatwave. COMMUNICATIONS BIOLOGY | (2021) 4:298 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-021-01827-6 | www.nature.com/commsbio
- Berry, Helen D, et al (2021) Long-term changes in kelp forests in an inner basin of the Salish Sea. PLoS ONE 16(2) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229703
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Hollarsmith, Jordan A. et al (2023) A century of canopy kelp persistence and recovery in the Gulf of Alaska. Annals of Botany, Volume 133, Issue 1, 1 January 2024, Pages 105–116, https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcad149
- Steffen Kiel, et al (2024) Early Oligocene kelp holdfasts and stepwise evolution of the kelp ecosystem in the North Pacific, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2317054121
- Oregon Kelp Alliance (2024) Kelp Status Report
- Nicholson Teri E. et al (2024) Sea otter recovery buffers century-scale declines in California kelp forests. PLOS Clim 3(1): e0000290. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000290
- Costa, M., Le Baron, N., Tenhunen, K., Nephin, J., Willis, P., Mortimor, J. P., … & Rubidge, E. (2020). Historical distribution of kelp forests on the coast of British Columbia: 1858–1956. Applied Geography, 120, 102230.
- Rasher, Douglas B., et al. “Keystone predators govern the pathway and pace of climate impacts in a subarctic marine ecosystem.” Science 369.6509 (2020): 1351-1354.
- Dayton, P. K., Tegner, M. J., Edwards, P. B., & Riser, K. L. (1998). Sliding baselines, ghosts, and reduced expectations in kelp forest communities. Ecological Applications, 8(2), 309-322.
- Filbee-Dexter, K., & Scheibling, R. E. (2014). Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems. Marine ecology progress series, 495, 1-25.
- Hamilton, S. L., & Caselle, J. E. (2015). Exploitation and recovery of a sea urchin predator has implications for the resilience of southern California kelp forests. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 282(1799), 20141817.
- Hamilton, S. L., Newsome, S. D., & Caselle, J. E. (2014). Dietary niche expansion of a kelp forest predator recovering from intense commercial exploitation. Ecology, 95(1), 164-172.
- Pearse, J. S., & Hines, A. H. (1979). Expansion of a central California kelp forest following the mass mortality of sea urchins. Marine Biology, 51(1), 83-91.
- Steneck, R. S., Graham, M. H., Bourque, B. J., Corbett, D., Erlandson, J. M., Estes, J. A., & Tegner, M. J. (2002). Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental conservation, 29(4), 436-459.
- Tegner, M. J., & Dayton, P. K. (1991). Sea urchins, El Ninos, and the long term stability of Southern California kelp forest communities. Marine ecology progress series. Oldendorf, 77(1), 49-63.
- Tegner, M. J., & Dayton, P. K. (1981). Population structure, recruitment and mortality of two sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus franciscanus and S. purpuratus) in a kelp forest. Mar Ecol Prog Ser, 5(255), 68.
Oregon Sea Otters in Anthropology and Pre-History
- Popken, L. R. et al (2023) Indigenous food sovereignty through resurgent self-governance: centering Nuu-chah-nulth principles in sea otter management in Canada. Ecology and Society 28(2):12. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-13702-280212
- Moss, M. L. (2020). Did Tlingit Ancestors Eat Sea Otters? Addressing Intellectual Property and Cultural Heritage through Zooarchaeology. American Antiquity, 85(2), 202-221.
- Braje, T. J., & Rick, T. C. (Eds.). (2011). Human impacts on seals, sea lions, and sea otters: integrating archaeology and ecology in the Northeast Pacific. Univ of California Press.
- Erlandson, J. M., Braje, T. J., Gill, K. M., & Graham, M. H. (2015). Ecology of the kelp highway: did marine resources facilitate human dispersal from Northeast Asia to the Americas?. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 10(3), 392-411.
- Erlandson, J. M., Graham, M. H., Bourque, B. J., Corbett, D., Estes, J. A., & Steneck, R. S. (2007). The kelp highway hypothesis: marine ecology, the coastal migration theory, and the peopling of the Americas. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 2(2), 161-174.
- Hall, R. L., Ebert, T. A., Gilden, J. S., Hatch, D. R., Mrakovcich, K. L., & Smith, C. L. (2012). Ecological baselines for Oregon’s coast: a report for agencies that manage Oregon’s coastal habitats for ecological and economic sustainability, and for all who are interested in the welfare of wildlife that inhabit our coast and its estuaries.
- Hall, R. L. (2009). Background resources and references for “The Oregon Coast before the arrival of Europeans”.
- Larson, S., Jameson, R., Etnier, M., Jones, T., & Hall, R. (2012). Genetic diversity and population parameters of sea otters, Enhydra lutris, before fur trade extirpation from 1741–1911. PLoS One, 7(3).
- Lee Lyman, R. (1988). Zoogeography of Oregon coast marine mammals: The last 3,000 years. Marine Mammal Science, 4(3), 247-264.
- Szpak, P., Orchard, T. J., McKechnie, I., & Gröcke, D. R. (2012). Historical ecology of late Holocene sea otters (Enhydra lutris) from northern British Columbia: isotopic and zooarchaeological perspectives. Journal of Archaeological Science, 39(5), 1553-1571.
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Valentine, K., Duffield, D. A., Patrick, L. E., Hatch, D. R., Butler, V. L., Hall, R. L., & Lehman, N. (2008). Ancient DNA reveals genotypic relationships among Oregon populations of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). Conservation Genetics, 9(4), 933-938.
Sea Otter Population Dynamics and Social Factors
- Smith Elliot, et al (2025) Forecasting sea otter recolonization: insights from isotopic analysis of modern and zooarchaeological populations. Proceedings Royal Society B 292: 20241682. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.1682
- Kone DV, Tinker MT, Torres LG (2021) Informing sea otter reintroduction through habitat and human interaction assessment. Endang Species Res 44:159-176.
- Boustany, A. M., Hernandez, D. A., Miller, E. A., Fujii, J. A., Nicholson, T. E., Tomoleoni, J. A., & Van Houtan, K. S. (2020). Examining the potential conflict between sea otter recovery and Dungeness crab fisheries in California. Biological Conservation, 253, 108830.
- Gregr, E. J., Christensen, V., Nichol, L., Martone, R. G., Markel, R. W., Watson, J. C., & Chan, K. M. (2020). Cascading social-ecological costs and benefits triggered by a recovering keystone predator. Science, 368(6496), 1243-1247.
- Burt, J. M., Wilson, Ḵ. I. B. J., Malchoff, T., Mack, W. T. K. A., Davidson, S. H. A., & Salomon, A. K. (2020). Enabling coexistence: Navigating predator‐induced regime shifts in human‐ocean systems. People and Nature.
- Estes, J. A., & Carswell, L. P. (2020). Costs and benefits of living with predators. Science, 368(6496), 1178-1180.
- Wellman, H. P., Austin, R. M., Dagtas, N. D., Moss, M. L., Rick, T. C., & Hofman, C. A. (2020). Archaeological mitogenomes illuminate the historical ecology of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) and the viability of reintroduction. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 287(1940), 20202343.
- Tinker, M. T., Gill, V. A., Esslinger, G. G., Bodkin, J., Monk, M., Mangel, M., … & Kissling, M. L. (2019). Trends and carrying capacity of sea otters in Southeast Alaska. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 83(5), 1073-1089
- Bodkin, J. L., Esslinger, G. G., & Monson, D. H. (2004). Foraging depths of sea otters and implications to coastal marine communities. Marine Mammal Science, 20(2), 305-321.
- Bodkin, J. L., Ballachey, B. E., Cronin, M. A., & Scribner, K. T. (1999). Population demographics and genetic diversity in remnant and translocated populations of sea otters. Conservation Biology, 13(6), 1378-1385.
- Chadès, I., Curtis, J. M., & Martin, T. G. (2012). Setting realistic recovery targets for two interacting endangered species, sea otter and northern abalone. Conservation Biology, 26(6), 1016-1025.
- Doroff, A. M., Estes, J. A., Tinker, M. T., Burn, D. M., & Evans, T. J. (2003). Sea otter population declines in the Aleutian archipelago. Journal of Mammalogy, 84(1), 55-64.
- Estes, J., Hatfield, B. B., Ralls, K., & Ames, J. (2003). Causes of mortality in California sea otters during periods of population growth and decline. Marine Mammal Science, 19(1), 198-216.
- Estes, J. A., Doak, D. F., Bodkin, J. R., Jameson, R. J., Monson, D., Watt, J., & Tinker, M. T. (1996). Comparative demography of sea otter populations. Endangered Species Update, 13(12), 11-13.
- Estes, J. A. (1991). Catastrophes and conservation: lessons from sea otters and the Exxon Valdez. IUCN Otter Specialist Group Bulletin, 2.
- Estes, J. A. (1990). Growth and equilibrium in sea otter populations. The Journal of Animal Ecology, 385-401.
- Larson, S., Jameson, R., Etnier, M., Jones, T., & Hall, R. (2012). Genetic diversity and population parameters of sea otters, Enhydra lutris, before fur trade extirpation from 1741–1911. PLoS One, 7(3).
- Johnson, C. K., Tinker, M. T., Estes, J. A., Conrad, P. A., Staedler, M., Miller, M. A., … & Mazet, J. A. (2009). Prey choice and habitat use drive sea otter pathogen exposure in a resource-limited coastal system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(7), 2242-2247.
- Larson, S., Jameson, R., Bodkin, J., Staedler, M., & Bentzen, P. (2002). Microsatellite DNA and mitochondrial DNA variation in remnant and translocated sea otter (Enhydra lutris) populations. Journal of Mammalogy, 83(3), 893-906.
- Tinker, M. T., Doak, D. F., & Estes, J. A. (2008). Using demography and movement behavior to predict range expansion of the southern sea otter. Ecological Applications, 18(7), 1781-1794.
Climate Change & Sea Otters
- Climate change brings great white sharks to central California waters, sea otter population in danger https://www.scmp.com/yp/discover/news/environment/article/3236862/climate-change-brings-great-white-sharks-central-california-waters-sea-otter-population-danger
- Schmitz, Oswald J, et al (2023) Trophic rewilding can expand natural climate solutions. Nature Climate Change
- Tanaka, K.R., Van Houtan, K.S., Mailander, E. et al. North Pacific warming shifts the juvenile range of a marine apex predator. Sci Rep 11, 3373 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-82424-9
Books
- Braje, T. J., & Rick, T. C. (Eds.). (2011). Human impacts on seals, sea lions, and sea otters: integrating archaeology and ecology in the Northeast Pacific. Univ of California Press.
- Larson, S. E., Bodkin, J. L., & VanBlaricom, G. R. (Eds.). (2014). Sea otter conservation. Academic Press.
- Kenyon, K. W. (1969). The sea otter in the eastern Pacific Ocean (No. 68). US Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.
- Terborgh, J., & Estes, J. A. (Eds.). (2013). Trophic cascades: predators, prey, and the changing dynamics of nature. Island Press.
2020 Sea Otter Virtual Science Symposium
- Keynote Address from Dr. Jim Estes
- 01 Scott Groth Sea Urchin Biology & Management in Oregon
- 02 Sara Hamilton Conservation Status of Pycnopodia
- 03 Josh Smith Patchiness in Kelp & Urchin Barrens
- 04 Brent Hughes Effects of Sea Otters Recolonizing Estuaries
- 05 Considerations for Recolonization of Sea Otters in Oregon
2018 Oregon Sea Otter Status of Knowledge Symposium
- 01 Ann Salomon/Barbara Wilson Sea Otters as a Keystone Species
- 02 Lilian Carswell California Population Status and and Conservation Issues
- 03 Deanna Lynch Washington Populations Status and Conservation
- 04 Jim Bodkin British Columbia Population Status and Conservation Issues
- 05 Jim Bodkin Alaska Population Status and Conservation Issues
- 06 Shawn Larson Current Understanding of Sea Otter Genetics
- 07 Bobbi Hall Sea Otters in Oregon, Archeological Evidence
- 08 Hannah Wellman Oregon Coast as Transitional Zone for Sea Otters (subspecies grandient)
- 09 Sarah Hamilton Kelp Habitat on the Oregon Coast
- 10 Dominique Kone Revisiting the Oregon Translocations of 1970-71
- 11 Jim Bodkin Lessons Learned about Sea Otter Translocation
More to Explore
Video Content
Explore our video archive, including short films produced by partners on sea otter natural history, ecology and conservation.
Podcasts
The Elakha Alliance produced a series of podcasts about sea otters and kelp ecosystems. Produced in partnership with Northwest Nature Matters.
